Pre-Colonial Partition of the Philippines / Pre-Colonial Kingdoms and Polities in the Philippine Archipelago before the Spanish

Pre-Colonial Partition of the Philippines / Pre-Colonial Kingdoms and Polities in the Philippine Archipelago before the Spanish

 

Pre-colonial Kingdoms and Polities in the Philippine Archipelago:

Pre-colonial polities in the Philippine archipelago
Polity / Kingdom	Period	Today part of
Ijang	unknown – 1790	Batanes
Lakanate of Lawan	unknown –1605	Samar, parts of Eastern Visayas
Samtoy	unknown – 1572	Ilocos Region
Tondo	Before 900 – 1589	Manila, parts of Central Luzon, Calabarzon and Bicol
Ma-i	Before 971 – c. 1339	Mindoro Island, parts of Southern Luzon
Rajahnate of Sanmalan	Before 982 – 1500s	Zamboanga
Sandao	c.1000 – c. 1300s	Calamian, Palawan, and parts of Luzon
Rajahnate of Butuan	c.989 – 1521	Butuan, parts of Northern Mindanao and Caraga
Cainta	unknown – 1571	Cainta
Kedatuan of Mairete	unknown – 1569	parts of Northern Leyte
Kedatuan of Bohol/Dapitan	unknown –1595	Bohol, parts of Northern Mindanao
Kedatuan of Madja-as	c.1080 – 1569	Western Visayas
Namayan	Before 1175–1571	Manila, parts of Calabarzon
Kumintáng	unknown – 1572	Batangas
Pulilu	unknown – 1571	Polillo, Quezon
Ibalon	unknown – 1573	Bicol Region
Taytay	c.1300 – 1623	Northern Palawan
Sultanate of Buayan	c.1350-1905	Parts of Maguindanao del Norte, Maguindanao del Sur, Cotabato, South Cotabato and General Santos City
Rajahnate of Sugbu	c.1400–1565	Cebu, parts of Central Visayas
Sultanate of Sulu	1457–1915	Sulu Archipelago, parts of Southern Palawan, Sabah, North and East Kalimantan in north-eastern Borneo
Caboloan	Before 1225 – 1576	Pangasinan, parts of Northern Luzon
Maynila	c.1500–1571	Manila, parts of Central Luzon
Sultanate of Maguindanao	1515–1928	Maguindanao, parts of Bangsamoro, Zamboanga Peninsula, Northern Mindanao, Soccsksargen and Davao Region
Sultanates of Lanao	1515 – Present	Lanao, parts of Bangsamoro

 

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Ijang

Ijangs are the terraced hillfort settlements of the Ivatan people built on hill tops and ridges in the Batanes Islands of the Philippines.^[1] These high rocky formations can serve as fortress or refuge against attacking enemies for the Ivatan people.^[2]

Lakanate of Lawan

Written by: Rev.Msgr. Gaspar D. Balerite, H.P.S.Th.D., Vicar General-Diocese of Catarman^[5]

In the pre-Hispanic times, the poblacion of Laoang was a settlement called Makarato^[6] while the whole island was called Lawang which later on evolved into Laoang. According to Fr. Ignatius Alzina in his book Historia de las Islas y Indios de Bisayas, the settlement was ruled by a monarch called Dato Karagrag, whose consort Bingi had an irresistible beauty that captivated other neighbouring kings, especially the dato from Albay. (Fr. Alzina lived as missionary in Samar and Leyte for 38 years, from 1634 to 1674, working mostly in Palapag.) Contrary to the popular legend that the word “Laoang” is an evolution of the word “lawag”, Laoang as “Lawang” in 1800s maps may have its origin from early Indonesian settlers of the island. In Sumatra Island (now part of Indonesia), there is a village known Bukitlawang in the vicinity of Lake Toba; Samareños are fond of abbreviations and contractions, hence the current name

Then, describing the place of the settlement, Fr. Alzina in his visit to the place in 1640 says, “On the opposite side of Rawis, on the Lawang Island, which is a sandbar there is a solid ridge of rock. It is fashioned by nature itself and it is so steep that it looks like a façade of a wall… It was a natural fortification, due to its great height of massive rock; it was also secured as if by a moat which encircled its three sides. The fourth side was blocked by a palisade of strong logs. Then too, nature also formed on one side of this rock something like a small cove with its little beach.”

Historian William Henry Scott wrote that a “Samar datu by the name of Iberein was rowed out to a Spanish vessel anchored in his harbor in 1543 by oarsmen collared in gold; while wearing on his own person earrings and chains.” In the local epic called siday entitled Bingi of Lawan as written in the article of Scott, Lawan is a prosperous Lakanate in Samar. Datu Hadi Iberein came from the Lakanate of Lawan^[7]

Samtoy

 Samtoy is a supposed name of a pre-colonial Philippine kingdom that has been ruled either over the entire Ilocos Region or only over Ilocos Sur back then before the Spaniards would come to the entire archipelago for their colonization over these isles. 

Kingdom of Tondo (historical polity)

In early Philippine history, the Tagalog settlement at Tondo (Tagalog: [tunˈdo]; Baybayin: ᜆᜓᜈ᜔ᜇᜓ) sometimes referred to as the Kingdom of Tondo, was a major trade hub located on the northern part of the Pasig River delta, on Luzon island. Together with Maynila, the polity (bayan) that was also situated on the southern part of the Pasig River delta, had established a shared monopoly on the trade of Chinese goods throughout the rest of the Philippine archipelago, making it an established force in trade throughout Southeast Asia and East Asia.^{[15][7][16][9][17][18][19]}

Tondo is of particular interest to Filipino historians and historiographers because it is one of the oldest historically documented settlements in the Philippines. Scholars generally agree that it was mentioned in the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, the Philippines' oldest extant locally produced written document, dating back to 900 A.D.^[2][9][20]

Following contact with the Spanish beginning in 1570 and the defeat of local rulers in the Manila Bay area in 1571, Tondo was ruled from Intramuros, a Spanish fort built on the remains of the Maynila polity. Tondo's absorption into the Spanish Empire effectively ended its status as an independent political entity; it now exists as a district of the modern City of Manila.

Ma-i

Ma-i, or Maidh (also spelled Ma'I, Mai, Ma-yi or Mayi; Baybayin: ᜋᜁ; Hanunoo: ᜫᜡ; Hokkien Chinese: 麻逸; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: mâ-i̍t; Mandarin Chinese: 麻逸; pinyin: máyì; Wade–Giles: ma²-i⁴), was an ancient sovereign state located in what is now the Philippines.

Its existence was first documented in 971 in the Song dynasty documents known as the History of Song,^[1][2] and it was also mentioned in the 10th-century records of the Bruneian Empire.^[6] Based on these and other mentions until the early 14th century, contemporary scholars believe Ma-i was located either in Bay, Laguna,^[1] or on the island of Mindoro.^[7]

Research by Fay Cooper Cole for the Field Museum in Chicago in 1912 showed that the ancient name of Mindoro was Mait.^[8] Mindoro's indigenous groups are called Mangyans, and to this day, the Mangyans call the lowlands of Bulalacao in Oriental Mindoro Mait. For most of the 20th century, historians generally accepted the idea that Mindoro was the political center of the ancient Philippine polity.^[1]: 119 However, a 2005 study by Filipino-Chinese historian Go Bon Juan suggested that the historical descriptions better match Bay, Laguna (pronounced Ba-i), which is written similarly to Ma-i in "Chinese orthography". According to Go Bon Juan's understanding,^[1]: 119 in Hokkien Chinese, the literary reading for the first character, 麻, is "mâ", while the vernacular reading could also be pronounced and read as "bâ" or "môa" but the second character, 逸, has the literary reading of "i̍t", while a vernacular reading of "ia̍k" (Quanzhou) or "e̍k" (Amoy & Zhangzhou) or "ia̍t" (Amoy). 

Sanmalan

The polity of Sanmalan is a precolonial Philippine state centered on what is now Zamboanga.^[1] Labeled in Chinese annals as "Sanmalan" 三麻蘭. The Chinese recorded a year 1011 tribute from its Rajah or King, Chulan, who was represented at the imperial court by his emissary Ali Bakti.^[2] Rajah Chulan who may be like their Hindu neighbors, the Rajahnates of Cebu and Butuan, be Hindu kingdoms ruled by Rajahs from India. Sanmalan specifically being ruled by a Tamil from the Chola Dynasty, as Chulan is the local Malay pronunciation of the Chola surname.^[3][4] The Chulan ruler of Sanmalan, may be associated with the Cholan conquest of Srivijaya. This theory is corroborated by linguistics and genetics as Zamboanga is, according to anthropologist Alfred Kemp Pallasen the linguistic homeland of the Sama-Bajau people, and genetic studies also show that they have Indian admixture, specifically the tribe of the Sama-Dilaut.^[5]

The tribute born by Rajah Chulan to the Chinese Emperor included aromatics, dates, glassware, ivory, peaches, refined sugar, and rose- water, which suggests that Sanmalan had trade links into Western Asia.^[1]

The later Chinese historical chronicle Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志 published at 1225; wrote once again about Sanmalan but it was now known as Shahuagong. In contrast to its previous mention as a trade emporium, it became a pirate-state driven by slave raiding.^[6]

Many of the people of the country of Shahuagong go out into the open sea on pirate raids. When they take captives, they bind them and sell them to Shepo (Java) (as slaves)

— ~Zhufan zhi 1225

When the Spanish arrived, they gave protectorate status to the ancient semi-independent Rajahnate of Sanmalan which was before them, was previously a protectorate of the Sultanate of Sulu.^[7] Under Spanish rule, the location of Sanmalan received Mexican and Peruvian military immigrants.^[8] After a rebellion against Spanish rule, the state that replaced Spain and had subsisted on what was once Sanmalan's location, was the short-lived Republic of Zamboanga. 

Sandao

Sandao (三嶋 in Chinese characters), also known as Sanyu (三嶼) and Sanshu (三洲), were a collection of a prehispanic Philippine polities recorded in Chinese annals as a nation occupying the islands of Jamayan 加麻延 (present-day Calamian), Balaoyou 巴姥酉 (present-day Palawan),^[1] and Pulihuan 蒲裏喚 (near present-day Manila).^[2] In the Chinese Gazetteer the Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志 (1225), they were described as tributary states of the more powerful nation of Ma-i centered in nearby Mindoro.^[3]

Rajahnate Butuan (historical polity)

Butuan, also called the Rajahnate of Butuan and the Kingdom of Butuan (Filipino: Kaharian ng Butuan; Butuanon: Gingharian hong Butuan; Cebuano: Gingharian sa Butuan; Chinese: 蒲端國; pinyin: Púduānguó), was a precolonial Bisaya polity (lungsod) centered around northeastern Mindanao island in present-day Butuan, Philippines. It was known for its gold mining, gold jewelry and other wares, and its extensive trade network across maritime Southeast Asia and elsewhere. Over its long history the lungsod had direct trading relationships with the ancient civilizations of China, Champa, Đại Việt, Pon-i (Brunei), Srivijaya, Majapahit, Kambuja, and areas now comprised in Thailand.^[6][7]

The balangay (large outrigger boats) that have been found along the east and west banks of the Libertad River (the old Agusan River) have revealed much about Butuan's history. As a result, Butuan is considered to have been a major trading port in the Caraga region during the precolonial era.^[8] 

Cainta (historical polity)

In early Philippine history, the Tagalog bayan (Kapampangan: balen; "country" or "polity")^[2] of Cainta was a fortified upriver polity that occupied both shores of an arm of the Pasig River. It was located not far from where the Pasig River meets the Lake of Ba-i and is presumed to be the present site of the municipality of Cainta, Rizal.^[3]

Description

Descriptions of early chroniclers say that the polity was surrounded by bamboo thickets, defended by a log wall, stone bulwarks, and several lantakas, and that an arm of the Pasig River flowed through the middle of the city, dividing it into two settlements.^[3]

As described in an anonymous 1572 account documented in Volume 3 of Blair and Robertson's compiled translations:^[3]

This said village had about a thousand inhabitants, and was surrounded by very tall and very dense bamboo thickets, and fortified with a wall and a few small culverins. The same river as that of Manilla circles around the village and a branch of it passes through the middle dividing it in two sections.

 Kedatuan of Mairete

The island was known to 16th-century Spanish explorers as Tandaya. Its population grew rapidly after 1900, especially in the Leyte and Ormoc valleys. The island was once the location of Mairete, a historic community which was ruled by Datu Ete. Before being colonized by Spain, the island was once home to indigenous animist Warays to the east and other indigenous animist Visayan groups to the west. 

Dapitan Kingdom

Dapitan Kingdom (also called Bool Kingdom) is the term used by local historians of Bohol, Philippines, to refer to the Dauis–Mansasa polity in the modern city of Tagbilaran and the adjecent island of Panglao. The volume of artifacts unearthed in the sites of Dauis and Mansasa may have inspired the creation of the legend of the "Dapitan Kingdom" through piecing together the oral legends of the Eskaya people and historical events such as the Ternatan raid of Bohol and the migration of Boholanos under Datu Pagbuaya to Dapitan. 

 Madja-as

The Confederation of Madja-as was a legendary pre-colonial supra-baranganic polity on the island of Panay in the Philippines. It was mentioned in Pedro Monteclaro's book titled Maragtas. It was supposedly created by Datu Sumakwel to exercise his authority over all the other datus of Panay.^[1] Like the Maragtas and the Code of Kalantiaw, the historical authenticity of the confederation is disputed, as no other documentation for Madja-as exists outside of Monteclaro's book.^[2] However, the notion that the Maragtas is an original work of fiction by Monteclaro is disputed by a 2019 Thesis, named "Mga Maragtas ng Panay: Comparative Analysis of Documents about the Bornean Settlement Tradition" by Talaguit Christian Jeo N. of the De La Salle University^[3] who stated that, "Contrary to popular belief, the Monteclaro Maragtas is not a primary source of the legend but is rather more accurately a secondary source at best" as the story of the Maragtas also appeared in the Augustinian Friar, Rev. Fr. Tomas Santaren’s Bisayan Accounts of Early Bornean Settlements (originally a part of the appendice in the book, Igorrotes: estudio geográfico y etnográfico sobre algunos distritos del norte de Luzon Igorots: a geographic and ethnographic study of certain districts of northern Luzon by Fr. Angel Perez)^[4] Additionally, the characters and places mentioned in the Maragtas book, like Rajah Makatunaw and Madj-as can be found in Ming Dynasty Annals and Arabic Manuscripts. However, the written dates go earlier since Rajah Makatunaw was recorded to have been from 1082 AD and was a descendant of Seri Maharajah (According to Chinese annals) while the Code of Maragtas, a separate work from the Maragtas book, placed him at the 1200s.^{[5][6][Notes 1]}

J. Carrol in his article: "The Word Bisaya in the Philippines and Borneo" (1960) thinks there might be indirect evidence in the possible affinity between the Visayans and Melanaos as he speculates that Makatunao is similar with the ancient leader of the Melanao in Sarawak, called "Tugau" or "Maha Tungao" (Maha or महत्, meaning 'great' in Sanskrit).^[7][8] Chinese annals and maps record Madja-as as marked with the city of Yachen 啞陳 (Oton, which is a district in Panay, an island under the Madja-as

 Namayan

Namayan (Baybayin: Pre-Kudlit: ᜈᜋᜌ or ᜐᜉ (Sapa), Post-Kudlit: ᜈᜋᜌᜈ᜔), also called Sapa,^[6] Maysapan, and sometimes Lamayan,^[7] was an independent indigenous^[2]: 193 polity^[8][9] on the banks of the Pasig River in the Philippines. It is believed to have achieved its peak in 1175,^[10] and to have gone into decline sometime in the 13th century,^[11] although it continued to be inhabited until the arrival of European colonizers in the 1570s.^[2]

Formed by a confederation of barangays,^[1] it was one of several polities on the Pasig River just prior to the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, alongside Tondo, Maynila, and Cainta.^[2][3]

Archeological findings in Santa Ana have produced the oldest evidence of continuous habitation among the Pasig River polities, pre-dating artifacts found within the historical sites of Maynila and Tondo.[

 Kumintang

 a Tagalog epic before the Spanish colonial period from the Kumintang area (supposed to be lost during the Spanish colonial period) ancient warriors from the Kumintang area.

Pulilu

Pulilu was a prehispanic barangay centered at present-day Polillo, Quezon^[1] and was mentioned in the Chinese Gazeteer Zhu Fan Zhi 諸蕃志 (1225).^[2] It is described as politically connected to the polity of Sandao "三嶋" in the Calamianes which itself was of lesser rank to the larger country of Ma-i "麻逸" centered in Mindoro.^[2] Its people were recorded to be warlike, and prone to pillaging and conflict. In this area, the sea is full of coral reefs, which have wavy surfaces that resemble decaying tree trunks or razor blades. Ships going by the reefs must be ready to make sharp maneuvers to avoid them because they are sharper than swords and halberds. Red coral and blue langgan coral are also produced here, however they are quite difficult to find. It is also similar to Sandao in local customs and trade products. The chief export of this small polity are rare corals.^[2]

Ibalon

Ibalon, or Ibalong, is the ancient name of the Bicol Region in the Philippines. The center of settlement is believed to be either beside the Bicol River at present-day Libmanan, Camarines Sur^[1] (as based on the Ibalong Epic) or in Magallanes, Sorsogon, Philippines, renowned as one of the first Spanish settlements in the island of Luzon. At some point, the name Ibalong was also used by the Spanish to refer to the entire Bicol Peninsula and, to some extent the entire island of Luzon.^{[2][3][4][5][6][7][8]}

At present, the Epic of Ibalong, at the present times, is being celebrated by Legazpi City in Albay. The Ibalong Festival celebrates the epic story of the Kingdom of Ibalong with three legendary heroes, namely Baltog, Handyong, Bantong and other ancient heroes. People parade in the streets wearing masks and costumes to imitate the appeara of the heroes and the villains, portraying the classic battles that made their way into the history of Bicol. The Ibalong Festival aims to express warmth and goodwill to all people; visitors and tourists are encouraged to celebrate with the Bicolanos. 

 

Sultanate of Buayan

The Sultanate of Buayan (Maguindanaon: Kasultanan nu Buayan, Jawi: كسولتانن نو بواين; Filipino: Sultanato ng Buayan), alternatively the Rajahnate of Buayan, was a Muslim state on the island of Mindanao in the southern Philippines from the mid-14th to the 20th century. Buayan was one of the four major sultanates in Mindanao, other sultanates being the Sultanate of Sulu, the Sultanate of Maguindanao, and the Confederacy of Lanao. Being the primary power in the upper Cotabato valley, it had access to an abundance of fertile land as well as raw materials, transforming into an agricultural powerhouse in contrast to Maguindanao. In addition, despite its status as an interior sultanate, Buayan was able to conduct maritime trade and diplomacy either through the Pulangi river mouth, or its port in Sarangani. At its maximum extent, its territory stretched from modern-day Kabuntalan to Sarangani Bay.^[1][2][3]

Buayan was also well known for its long rivalry with Maguindanao, often using its alliance with Spain to weaken its rival and usurp the throne in Cotabato, as well as to monopolize on the trade, influence, and tribute from its weaker subjects over mainland Mindanao.

Its rulers, often referred to as the "Rajah Buayan" indicates a pre-existing Indianized form of governance in the region, already headed by a Rajah.^[2]

The Sultanate of Buayan ceased to exist as a sovereign entity following the death of Datu Ali, the Rajah Buayan of Buayan, after being killed in the Battle of the Malala River on 22 October 1905 against American forces. The American colonial administration was able to assert its authority with the aid of Datu Piang, the assumed ruler of Cotabato.^[4]

 

Chola Rajahnate of Cebu (historical polity)

The Rajahnate of Cebu or Cebu also called as Sugbu, was an Indianized Raja monarchy Mandala (Polity) on the island of Cebu^[3] in the Philippines prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. It is known in ancient Chinese records as the nation of Sokbu (束務).^[4] According to Visayan oral legend, it was founded by Sri Lumay^[3] or Rajamuda Lumaya, a minor prince of the Tamil Chola dynasty.^[3] He was sent by the Chola Dynasty emperor from southern India to establish a base for expeditionary forces, but he rebelled and established his own independent polity.^[5] The capital of the nation was Singhapala (சிங்கப்பூர்)^[6] which is Tamil-Sanskrit^[7] for "Lion City", the same rootwords with the modern city-state of Singapore. 

Sultanate of Sulu

The Sultanate of Sulu (Tausug: Kasultanan sin Sūg; Malay: Kesultanan Sulu; Filipino: Sultanato ng Sulu) was a Muslim state^{[note 1]} that ruled the Sulu Archipelago, costal areas of Zamboanga City and certain portions of Palawan in the today's Philippines, alongside parts of present-day Sabah, North and East Kalimantan in north-eastern Borneo.

The sultanate was founded either on 17 November 1405 or 1457^{[5][note 2]} by Johore-born explorer and Sunni Sufi religious scholar Sharif ul-Hashim, a follower of the Ash'ari Aqeeda and Shafi'i Madh'hab. Paduka Mahasari Maulana al Sultan Sharif ul-Hashim became his full regnal name; Sharif-ul Hashim is his abbreviated name. He settled in Buansa, Sulu. After the marriage of Abu Bakr and a local dayang-dayang (princess) Paramisuli, he founded the sultanate. The sultanate gained its independence from the Bruneian Empire in 1578.^[9]

At its peak, it stretched over the islands that bordered the western peninsula of Zamboanga in Mindanao in the east to Palawan in the north. It also covered areas in the northeast of Borneo, stretching from Marudu Bay,^[10][11] to Tepian Durian (in present-day Kalimantan, Indonesia).^[12][13] Another source stated the area included stretched from Kimanis Bay, which also overlaps with the boundaries of the Bruneian Sultanate.^[14] Following the arrival of western powers such as the Spanish, the British, the Dutch, French, Germans, the Sultan thalassocracy and sovereign political powers were relinquished by 1915 through an agreement that was signed with the United States.^{[15][16][17][18]} In the second half of the 20th century, Filipino government extended official recognition of the head of the royal house of the sultanate, before the ongoing succession dispute.

In Kakawin Nagarakretagama, the Sultanate of Sulu is referred to as Solot, one of the countries in the Tanjungnagara archipelago (Kalimantan-Philippines), which is one of the areas that is under the influence of the mandala area of the Majapahit kingdom in the archipelago.

 Caboloan

Caboloan (also spelled Kaboloan; Pangasinan: Luyag na Caboloan),^[1] referred to in Chinese records as Feng-chia-hsi-lan (simplified Chinese: 冯嘉施兰; traditional Chinese: 馮嘉施蘭; pinyin: Féngjiāshīlán; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Pâng-ka-si-lân; "Pangasinan"),^[2] was a sovereign pre-colonial Philippine polity (panarian) located in the Agno River basin and delta, with Binalatongan as the capital.^[3]

History

Chinese records

Places in the present-day province of Pangasinan like Lingayen Gulf were mentioned as early as 1225, when Lingayen, then known as Li-ying-tung, was listed in Chao Ju-kua's Chu Fan Chih (an account of the various barbarians) as one of the trading places along with Ma-i.^[4] Caboloan sent emissaries to China in 1406–1411.^[2] The emissaries reported three successive paramount leaders of Caboloan to the Chinese: Kamayin on September 23, 1406, Taymey ("Tortoise Shell"), and Liyli in 1408 and 1409, and on December 11, 1411, the emperor tendered the Pangasinan party a state banquet.^[5]

In the 16th century, the Spanish referred to the port settlement of Agoo^[6] as the "Port of Japan".^[7] The locals wore apparel typical of other maritime Southeast Asian ethnic groups in addition to Japanese and Chinese silks. Even common people were clad in Chinese and Japanese cotton garments. They also blackened their teeth and were disgusted by the white teeth of foreigners, which were likened to that of animals. They used porcelain jars typical of Japanese and Chinese households. Japanese-style gunpowder weapons were also encountered in naval battles in the area.^[8] In exchange for these goods, traders from all over Asia would come to trade primarily for gold and slaves but also for deerskins, civets and other local products. Other than a notably more extensive trade network with Japan and China, they were culturally similar to other Luzon groups to the south, especially the Kapampangans and they are neighbors to the Ilocanos too.

 

Maynila (historical polity)

In Philippine history, the Tagalog bayan ("country" or "city-state")^[6][1] of Maynila was one of the most cosmopolitan of the early historic settlements on the Philippine archipelago.^[7] Fortified with a wooden palisade which was appropriate for the predominant battle tactics of its time,^[1] it lay on the southern part of the Pasig River delta, where the district of Intramuros in Manila currently stands,^[6][8] and across the river from the separately-led Tondo polity.^[1][7]

Maynila was led by paramount rulers who were referred to using the Malay title of "Raja".^[6][1] In popular literature and in history texts from the first few decades after Philippine independence, precolonial Maynila is often referred to as the "Kingdom of Maynila", and its Rajas portrayed as "kings," even if they did not exercise sovereignity in the technical sense of achieving a "monopoly on the legitimate use of force".^[7][9] Instead, limited population sizes, the ready availability of land, and seasonally migratory agricultural practices meant that their authority was based on interpersonal loyalty structures and social obligations vis a vis clearly defined territorial dominion.^[1][7][10] Maynila is sometimes interpreted to be the Kingdom of Luzon, although some historians suggest that this might rather refer to the Manila Bay region as a whole, expanding the possible dominion of the kingdom.^[1][11]

The earliest oral traditions suggest that Maynila was founded as a Muslim settlement as early as the 1250s, supposedly supplanting an even older pre-Islamic settlement.^[1] However, the earliest archeological findings for organized human settlements in the area dates to around 1500s.^[1] By the 16th century, it was already an important trading center, with extensive political ties with the Sultanate of Brunei and extensive trade relations with traders from the Ming dynasty.^[12] With Tondo, the polity on the northern part of the Pasig River delta, it established a duopoly on the intraarchipelagic trade of Chinese goods.^[13]

Maynila and Luzon are sometimes associated with the Bruneian legends which describe a settlement called "Seludong" or "Saludong" which was said to be a vassal to the Bruneian Sultanate; but Southeast Asian scholars believe this refers to a settlement Mount Selurong in Indonesia.^[8] For political reasons, the historical rulers of Maynila maintained close cognatic ties through intermarriage with the ruling houses of the Sultanate of Brunei, but Brunei's political influence over Maynila is not considered to have extended to military or political rule.^[7] Intermarriage was a common strategy for large thassalocratic states such as Brunei to extend their influence, and for local rulers such as those of Maynila to help strengthen their family claims to nobility.^[1] Actual political and military rule over the large distances characteristic of Maritime Southeast Asia was not possible until relatively modern times.^[14]

By 1570, Maynila was under the rule of two paramount rulers (the more senior Rajah Matanda and the younger Rajah Sulayman), who in turn had several lower-ranked rulers ("Datu") under them.^[6][1] This was the political situation encountered by Martin de Goiti when he attacked Maynila in May of that year.^[8] This "Battle of Maynila" ended with a fire that destroyed the fortified settlement of Maynila,^[8] although it is not clear whether the fire was set by Goiti or by the inhabitants themselves as part of the scorched earth tactics typically used in the archipelago during that era.^[13]

Maynila had been partially rebuilt by the following year, 1571, when the full forces of de Goiti's superior, Miguel López de Legazpi, arrived in the city to claim it as a territory of New Spain.^[8] After extensive negotiations with the leaders of Maynila and those of the neighbouring settlement in Tondo,^[13][1] Maynila was declared as the new Spanish city of Manila on June 24, 1571, effectively ending Maynila's history as an independent polity.^[8]

 

Sultanate of Maguindanao

The Sultanate of Maguindanao (Maguindanaon: Kasultanan nu Magindanaw, Jawi: كسولتانن نو مڬیندنو; Filipino: Sultanato ng Maguindanao) was a sultanate that ruled parts of the island of Mindanao, in the southern Philippines, especially in modern-day Maguindanao provinces (Maguindanao del Sur and Maguindanao del Norte), Soccsksargen, Zamboanga Peninsula and Davao Region. Its known historical influence stretches from the peninsula of Zamboanga to bay of Sarangani until Davao Gulf. During the era of European colonization, the Sultanate maintained friendly relations with British and Dutch traders.^[5] 

Confederate States of Lanao

 

The Confederate States of Lanao (Maranao: Pat a Pangampong sa Ranao, "Four States of Lanao") is a legislative confederation of the four Maranao states (pangampong) of Bayabao, Masiu, Unayan, and Balo-i centered around Lake Lanao in the center of the island of Mindanao, Philippines.^[1]

This confederation is also sometimes inaccurately referred to as simply the Lanao Sultanate or Sultanate of Lanao. 

 

Taytay

Taytay, officially known as the Chiefdom of Taytay, was ruled by a monarch noted as followed everywhere at any given time by ten scribes. The crew of Ferdinand Magellan held the Taytay king and queen for ransom after escaping the battle of Mactan where Magellan was slain. They intended to secure more supplies as they plan to cross into the Moluccas where the Portuguese were so help could be sought. The native king and his subjects complied with the demands and even added more food supplies than what they asked for. This was duly recorded by Antonio Pigafetta, Magellan's chronicler, who was on board in one of the ships when these events took place.